what chain of events will most likely occur to iceland in the future?

This image displays a global distribution of 45 hotspots including Iceland.

The geology of Iceland is unique and of particular interest to geologists. Iceland lies on the divergent purlieus between the Eurasian plate and the North American plate. It too lies to a higher place a hotspot, the Republic of iceland plume. The plume is believed to take caused the formation of Republic of iceland itself, the isle first appearing over the ocean surface about 16 to 18 million years ago.^{[1] [2]} The consequence is an island characterized by repeated volcanism and geothermal phenomena such as geysers.

The eruption of Laki in 1783 caused much devastation and loss of life, leading to a famine that killed well-nigh 25% of the island's population^[3] and resulted in a driblet in global temperatures, as sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere. This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in Bharat. The eruption has been estimated to have killed over half dozen million people globally.^[4]

Between 1963 and 1967, the new isle of Surtsey was created off the southwest coast past a volcanic eruption.

Geologic history [edit]

The opening of the Northward Atlantic and the origin of Republic of iceland [edit]

Iceland is located above the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Some scientists believe the hotspot beneath Iceland could accept contributed to the rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea and the subsequent formation of the N Atlantic Ocean. Igneous rocks which arose from this hotspot have been found on both sides of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which originated 57–53 one thousand thousand years agone ("Ma"), effectually the fourth dimension N America and Eurasia separated and ocean floor spreading began in the Northeast Atlantic.^[5] Geologists can make up one's mind plate motility relative to the Icelandic hotspot by examining igneous rocks throughout the Northern Atlantic region. This is possible because sure rocks attributable to hotspot volcanism tin can be interpreted equally volcanic traces left by the Iceland hotspot.^[5] By assuming that the hotspot is stationary, geologists use what is chosen the "hotspot frame of reference" to gather plate motion estimates and to create maps of plate motility on the surface of the World relative to a stationary hotspot.

Most researchers of plate motion agree that the Republic of iceland hotspot was probably located beneath Greenland for a flow of time. Equally the North Atlantic Bounding main continued to spread apart, Greenland was located to the southeast of the Iceland hotspot and probable moved over it 70–twoscore Ma.^[six] Some research using new plate move data gathered from hotspot reference frames from around the earth suggests that the Iceland hotspot'due south path differs from that estimated from older investigations. Many older rocks (dated 75–lxx Ma) located throughout the surface area to the west are not merely located near hypothesized Republic of iceland hotspot paths but are also owing to hotspot volcanism. This implies that the Iceland hotspot may exist much older than the earliest rifting of what is now the northernmost Northeast Atlantic. If this is true, then much of the rifting in the North Atlantic was probable caused past thinning and bulging of the chaff every bit opposed to the more direct influence of the mantle plumage which sustains the Republic of iceland hotspot.^[5]

In other scientific work on the path of the Iceland hotspot, no such westward track toward Canada (where the aforementioned older igneous rocks exist) can be detected, which implies that the older igneous rocks found in the Northern Atlantic may not accept originated from the hotspot.^{[vi] [vii]} Although the exact path of the Iceland hotspot is debated, a preponderance of geophysical bear witness, such as the geothermal estrus flux over Greenland, shows that the hotspot likely moved below Greenland around 80–50 Ma.^[7]

Effectually 60–50 Ma, when Iceland was located near the eastern declension of Greenland and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, volcanism, perhaps generated by the Iceland hotspot, connected the Eurasian and North American continents and formed a land bridge between the continents while they spread autonomously. This feature is known as the Greenland Scotland Transverse Ridge, and it at present lies below bounding main level.^[8] Most 36 Ma, the Iceland hotspot was fully in contact with the oceanic crust and perhaps fed segments of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which connected to form the oldest rocks located directly to the due east and west of mod-solar day Republic of iceland. The oldest sub-aeriform rocks in modern-twenty-four hour period Iceland are from 16.5 Ma.^{[v] [8]}

Although almost scientists believe Republic of iceland is capable of being an isle^{[ clarification needed ]} because information technology is both in contact with a mantle plume, and existence actively dissever apart past the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, some other convincing seismological and geophysical evidence calls the previously discussed mantle plume/hotspot assumption into question. Some geologists believe there is not enough definitive evidence to suggest a drapery plume exists below Iceland because sea floor heat flow through the lithosphere surrounding Republic of iceland does not deviate from normal oceanic lithosphere heat flow that is uninfluenced by a plume.^[ix] This common cold chaff hypothesis directly opposes the idea that Iceland is located to a higher place a hot drape plume. Boosted testify indicates that seismic waves created under Iceland do not behave every bit expected based on other seismic surveys well-nigh hypothesized mantle plumes.^[10] Every bit information technology is one of the but places where sea floor spreading can be observed on land, and where at that place is evidence for a curtain plume, the geological history of Iceland will likely remain a popular area of inquiry.

Glaciations [edit]

• Glacier extent
• Nunataks and ice gratis areas
• Interglacials
• Tuyas and subglacial volcanism

Holocene changes and volcanism [edit]

• Revegetation
• Increased volcanism
• Soil formation
• Isostatic rebound
• Holocene sediments
• Coastal erosion

Rock types [edit]

Volcanic deposits [edit]

• Tholeiitic volcanic series
• Alkalic volcanic serial
• Hyaloclastite
• Tephras and ash

Intrusive rocks [edit]

• Dikes
• Sills
• Plutons

Sedimentary deposits [edit]

One of the rare examples of sedimentary rocks in Iceland is the sequence of marine and non-marine sediments nowadays on the Tjörnes Peninsula in northern Iceland. These Pliocene and late Pleistocene deposits are equanimous of silt and sandstones, with fossils preserved in the lower layers.^[eleven] The principal fossil types institute in the Tjörnes beds are marine clam shells and constitute remains (lignite).

• Vegetational changes
• Past climate
• Origin of the strata
• Fossil preservation

Active tectonics [edit]

The tectonic structure of Republic of iceland is characterized past various seismically and volcanically active centers. Iceland is bordered to the southward by the Reykjanes Ridge segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and to the north by the Kolbeinsey Ridge. Rifting in the southern role of Iceland is focused in ii principal parallel rift zones. The Reykjanes Peninsula Rift in SW Republic of iceland is the landward continuation of the Reykjanes Ridge that connects to the Western Volcanic Zone (WVZ). The more agile Eastern Volcanic Zone (EVZ) represents a rift bound, although it is unclear how the east propagation of the principal rifting activeness has occurred.^[12] The offset between the WVZ and the EVZ is accommodated by the Due south Iceland Seismic Zone, an area characterized by high convulsion activity. The EVZ transitions northward into the Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), which contains Krafla volcano. The NVZ is connected to the Kolbeinsey Ridge by the Tjörnes Fracture Zone, another major center of seismicity and deformation.

A cracking bargain of volcanic activeness was occurring in the Reykjanes Peninsula in 2020 and into 2021, later almost 800 years of inactivity. Subsequently the eruption of the Fagradalsfjall volcano on 19 March 2021, National Geographic'southward experts predicted that this "may mark the start of decades of volcanic activeness". The eruption was small-scale leading to a prediction that this volcano was unlikely to threaten "any population centers".^[13]

Modern glaciers [edit]

Glaciers cover about 11% of Iceland; easily the largest of these is Vatnajökull. Equally many glaciers overlie active volcanoes, subglacial eruptions tin can pose hazards due to sudden floods produced by glacial meltwater, known every bit jökulhlaup. Icelandic glaciers have generally been retreating over the past 100 years; Vatnajökull has lost as much as x% of its volume.^[14]

Man impact and natural catastrophes [edit]

• Overgrazing

• Soil erosion

• Jökulhlaup
• Fluorosis
• Laki eruption
• 2008 Iceland earthquake
• Deforestation
• Geothermal energy use

See as well [edit]

• Fossils of Iceland
• Geography of Iceland
• Geological deformation of Iceland
• Geothermal ability in Iceland
• Iceland plumage
• List of fjords of Republic of iceland
• Listing of glaciers of Iceland
• List of islands of Republic of iceland
• Listing of lakes of Iceland
• List of rivers of Iceland
• Listing of volcanoes in Iceland
• List of waterfalls of Iceland
• Volcanism of Iceland
• Listing of volcanic eruptions in Iceland

References [edit]

1. ^ Tobias Weisenberger (2013). "Introduction to the geology of Iceland".
2. ^ "Catalogue of the Active Volcanoes of the World, Vol. 24" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-13. Retrieved 2012-08-01 .
3. ^ Gunnar Karlsson (2000), Iceland's 1100 Years, p. 181
4. ^ How The Earth Was Fabricated: The Age of Earth (video), History.com
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Müller, R. Dietmar; Royer, Jean-Yves; Lawver, Lawrence A. (1993-03-01). "Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspot tracks". Geology. 21 (iii): 275. Bibcode:1993Geo....21..275D. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0275:rpmrtt>2.iii.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
6. ^ ^{a b} O'Neill, Craig; Müller, Dietmar; Steinberger, Bernhard (April 2005). "On the uncertainties in hot spot reconstructions and the significance of moving hot spot reference frames". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 6 (iv): n/a. Bibcode:2005GGG.....6.4003O. doi:10.1029/2004gc000784. ISSN 1525-2027.
7. ^ ^{a b} Martos, Yasmina M.; Jordan, Tom A.; Catalán, Manuel; Jordan, Thomas G.; Bamber, Jonathan 50.; Vaughan, David G. (2018-08-24). "Geothermal Heat Flux Reveals the Iceland Hotspot Rails Underneath Greenland" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (sixteen): 8214–8222. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.8214M. doi:ten.1029/2018gl078289. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 134080119.
8. ^ ^{a b} Denk, Thomas; Grímsson, Friðgeir; Zetter, Reinhard; Símonarson, Leifur (2011-02-23), Introduction to the Nature and Geology of Iceland, 35, retrieved 2018-10-16
9. ^ Stein, Ballad A; Stein, Seth (February 2003). "Mantle plumes: rut-flow near Iceland". Astronomy and Geophysics. 44 (1): one.08–one.x. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.44108.x. ISSN 1366-8781.
10. ^ Foulger, G. R.; Du, Z.; Julian, B. R. (November 2003). "Icelandic-type crust". Geophysical Journal International. 155 (2): 567–590. Bibcode:2003GeoJI.155..567F. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2003.02056.10. ISSN 0956-540X.
11. ^ Símonarson, 50. A., & Eiríksson, J. (2008). "Tjörnes-Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments and faunas". Jökull. 58: 331–342. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
12. ^
13. ^ "Eruption in Republic of iceland may marking the starting time of decades of volcanic activity". Retrieved 27 March 2021.
14. ^ Björnsson, H., & Pálsson, F. (2008). "Icelandic glaciers" (PDF). Jökull. 58: 365–386. {{cite periodical}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links [edit]

• Maps and illustrative photos from Spousal relationship Higher
• Trønnes, R.G. 2002: Field trip: Introduction. Geology and geodynamics of Republic of iceland. In: S. Planke (ed.) Iceland 2002 – Petroloeum Geology Field Trip Guide, prepared for Statoil Faroes Licence Groups by Volcanic Bowl Petroleum Research, Nordic Volcanological Institute and Iceland National Free energy Dominance, p. 23-43.
• Thor Thordarson. Outline of Geology of Iceland. Chapman Conference 2012
• Bamlett Thousand. and J. F. Potter (1994) "Republic of iceland". Geologists' Association Guide No.52.
• Interview of geologist Gro Birkefeldt Møller Pedersen nearly Iceland's geology, in item its volcanoes.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Iceland

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